i)

Single work by one or more authors
Whenever you quote, paraphrase or summarize material in your text, you should give both author's last name and that data of that source. For direct quotations, you must also provide specific page numbers, if applicable. You may also provide page references, as a convenience to your readers, whenever you suspect they might want to consult a source you have cited. Page references in the APA system are always preceded, in-text or in the References, by the abbreviations “p”. for a single page or “pp.” for multiple pages.

APA style requires that, authors' names, publication dates, and page numbers (when listed) should be placed in parentheses following citable material. If any of these elements are identified in the text referred to in the parenthetical citation, they are not repeated in the citation.

Exotoxins make some bacteria dangerous to humans (Thomas, 1974).

According to Thomas (1974), “Some bacteria are only harmful to us if they make exotoxins” (p. 76).

We need fear some bacteria only “if they make exotoxins” (Thomas, 1974, p. 76).

For a work by two authors, cite both names.

Smith and Hawkins (1990) agree that all bacteria producing exotoxins are harmful to humans.

All known exotoxin-producing bacteria are harmful to human (Smith & Hawkins, 1990)

The authors' names are joined by and within your text, but APA convention requires an ampersand (&) to join authors' names in parentheses.

For a work by three to five authors, identify all the authors by last name the first time you cite a source. In subsequent citations identify only the first author followed by “et al.” (“and others”).

The most recent study supports the belief that alcohol abuse is on the rise (Dinkins, Dominic, Smith, Rogers & White, 1989) … when homeless people were excluded from the study, the results were the same (Dinkins et al., 1989).

If you are citing a source by six or more authors, identify only the first author in all in-text citations, followed by “et al.” (The first six authors are named in the References list, however; see model 2 under “Documenting Books” for more details.)

(ii)

Two or more works by the same author published in the same year
To distinguish between two or more works published in the same year by the same author or team of authors, place a lowercase letter (a, b, c, etc), immediately after the date. This letter should correspond to that in the References list, where the entries will be alphabetized by title. If two appear in one citation, repeat the year.

(Smith 1992a, 1992b)

(iii)

Unknown author To cite the work of an unknown author, use the first two or three words of the entry as it is listed on the References page (usually by the title). If the words are from the title, enclose them in quotation marks for the title of a periodical article, or italicize them for the title of a nonperidoical, whichever is appropriate.

Many researchers now believe that treatment should not begin until other factors have been dealt with (“New Evidence Suggests,” 1987).

Statistical Abstracts (1991) reports the literacy rate for Mexico at 75% for 1990, up 4% from census figures 10 years ago.

(iv)

Corporate or organizational author
When a citation refers to a work by a corporation, association, or organization, or foundation, spell out the name of the authoring agency. If the name can be abbreviated and remain identifiable, spell out the name only the first time it is cited, placing its abbreviation immediately after it, in brackets. For subsequent references to that source, you may use only the abbreviation.

(American Psychological Association [APA], 1993)

(APA, 1994)

(v)

Authors with the same last name
To avoid confusion when citing two or more authors with the same last name, always include each author's initials in every citation.

(C. L. Clark, 1994; J. M. Clark, 1995)

(vi)

Quote from an indirect source
Use the words “as cited in” to indicate when a quotation or any information you are using from a source is itself originally from another source.

Lester Brown of Worldwatch believes international agricultural production has reached its limit and that “we're going to be in trouble on the food front before this decade is out” (as cited in Mann, 1993, p. 51).

(vii)

More than one work in a citation As a general guideline, list two or more sources within a single parenthetical reference in the same order in which they appear on your Reference page. More than one work by the same author should be listed in chronological order, with the author's name mentioned once and the dates separated by commas:

(Thomas, 1974, 1979

(viii)

(Miller, 1990; Webster & Rose, 1988)

(viiii)

Long quote set off from text
Start quotations of forty or more words on a new line and indent the block five spaces from the left margin. Indent the first line of the second or any subsequent paragraphs (but not the first paragraph) five additional spaces. Double space all such quotations, omit quotation marks, and place the parenthetical citation after any end punctuation, with no period following the citation.

Language is everywhere. It permeates our thoughts, mediates our relations with others, and even creeps into our dreams. The overwhelming bulk of human knowledge is stored and transmitted in language. Language is so ubiquitous that we take it for granted, but without it, society as we now know it would be impossible.

Despite its prevalence in human affairs, language is still poorly understood. (Langacker, 1968, p. 3)

(x)

Electronic source

When you cite a website, not specific information or parts of the site, it is sufficient to give the correct full name of the site and , in parentheses, its electronic address. If you are quoting, paraphrasing, or summarizing information retrieved from a website, then include an in-text citation (as you would for a print source) and a References entry. Identify the paragraph number or the section you are quoting from when the document is not paginated.

(Pierce, 1869, para. 3).

(2) Conventions for footnotes
Footnotes are used to provide additional information that cannot be worked into the main text, information highly likely to be of interest to some readers but also likely to slow down the pace of your text or obscure your point for other readers. Therefore, even the footnotes you do choose to provide should be as brief as possible; when the information you want to add is extensive, it is better to present it in an appendix. Footnotes should be numbered consecutively, should follow the References list on a page headed “Footnotes”, should be double-spaces, and should have the first line indented five spaces (or a half inch).

(3) Conventions for references page
All works mentioned in a paper should be identified on a reference list according to the following general rules of the APA documentation system.

(i)

Order of entries
Alphabetize the list of references according to authors' last names, using the first author's last name for works with multiple authors. For entries by an unknown author, alphabetize by the first word of the title, excepting non-significant words (e.g. A, An, The).

(ii)

Format for entries
The three most used general formats are described here.

General format for books
Author(s). (Year of publication). Book title . City of publication: Publisher.

General format for journal articles
Author(s). (Year of publication). Article title. Journal Title , volume number , inclusive page numbers.

General format for magazine and newspaper articles
Author(s). (Year, month of publication). Article title. Publication Title, Volume , inclusive page numbers using the abbreviations “p.” or “pp.” as appropriate.

(a) Authors
List the author's last name first, followed by a comma and the author's initials (not first names). When a work has more than one author, list all authors in this way, separating the names with a comma. When listing multiple authors for a single work, place an ampersand (&) before the last author's name. A period follows the author name(s).

(b) Titles
List the complete titles and subtitles of books and articles, but capitalize only the first word of the title and any subtitle, as well as all propose nouns. Underline book titles and journal or publication titles, but do not underline article titles or place quotation marks around them. Place a period after the title.

(c) Publishers
List publishers' names in shortened form, omitting words such as “Publishing,” “Company,” “Limited,” and “Incorporated” (or their common abbreviations) but retail “Books” “Press”. Spell out the names of university presses and organizations in full. For books, use a colon to separate the city of publication from the publisher.

(d) Dates and page numbers
For magazines and newspapers, use commas to separate the year from the month and day, and enclose the publication dates in parenthesis: (1954, May 25). Inclusive page numbers should be separated by a hyphen with no spaces: 361-375. Full sequences should be given for pages and dates: not 361-75. If pages do not follow consecutively (as in newspapers), include subsequent page numbers after a common: pp. 1, 16. Note that “pp.” precedes the page numbers for newspapers articles, but not for journal articles.

(e) Abbreviations
State names are abbreviated, but months and country names are not. Use U.S. postal abbreviations for state abbreviations.

(iii)

Examples
Following are examples of the References format for a variety of source types.

Documenting Books

a. Book by one author

Benjamin, J. (1988). The bonds of love: Psychoanalysis, feminism, and the problem of domination .    New York : Prometheus.

b. Book by two or more authors

Zweigenhaft, R. L., & Domhoff, G. W. (1991). Blacks in the White establishment. New Haven , CT    : Yale University Press.

Include the first six authors' names associated with a particular work in the References list. Shorten the number of authors by substituting “et al.” for the seventh author or more. (This is a change in the Standard format established in the fifth edition of the APA Publication Manual [2001]).

c. More than one book by the same author
List two or more books by the same author (or the same author team listed in the same order) chronologically by year in the References, with the earliest first/ Arrange any such works published in the same year alphabetically by title, placing lowercase letters after the dates. In either case, give full identification of author(s) for each reference listing.

Bandura, A. (1969). Principles of behavior modification . New York : Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.

Bandura, A. (1977a). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological    Review , 84, 191-215.

Bandura, A. (1977b). Social learning theory . Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

If the same author is named first but listed with different coauthors, alphabetize by the last name of the second author. Works by the first author alone are listed before works with coauthors.

d. Book by a corporation, association or organization

American Psychological Association. (2001). Publication manual of the American Psychological    Association (5th ed.). Washington , DC : Author.

Alphabetize corporate authors by the corporate name, excluding the articles A, An, and The. When the corporate author is also the publisher, designate the publishers as “Author”.

e. Revised edition of a book

Peek, S. (1993). The game inventor's handbook (Rev. ed.). Cincinnati , OH : Betterway.

f. Edited book

Schaefer, C. E., & Reid, S. E. (Eds). (1986). Game play: Therapeutic use of childhood games . New    York : Wiley.

Place “Ed.” or “Eds.,” capitalized, after the singular or plural name of the editor(s) of an edited book.

g. Book in more than one volume

Waldrep, T. (Ed.). (1985-1988). Writers on writing (Vols. 1-2). New York : Random House.

For a work with volumes published in different years, indicate the range of dates of publication. In citing only one volume of a multivolume work, indicate only the volume cited.

Waldrep, T. (Ed.). (1988). Writers on writing (Vol. 2). New York : Random House.

h. Translated or reprinted book

Freud, S. (1950). The interpretation of dreams (A. A. Brill, Trans.). New York : Modern-Random    House. (Original work published 1900)

The date of the translation or reprint is in parentheses after the author's name, Indicate the original publication date parenthetically at the end of the citation, with no period. In the text, parenthetically cite the information with both dates: (Freud 1900/1950).

(i) Chapter or article in an edited book

Telander, R. (1996). Senseless crimes. In C. I. Schuster & W. V. Van Pelt (Eds.), Speculations:    Readings in culture, identity, and values (2nd ed., pp. 264-272). Upper Saddle River , NJ :    Prentice Hall.

The chapter or article title is not italicized or set in quotation marks. Editors' names are listed in standard reading order (surname last). Inclusive page numbers, in parentheses, follow the title of the larger work.

(j) Anonymous book

Stereotypes, distortions and omissions in U.S. history textbooks . (1977). New York : Council on    Interracial Books for Children.

Do not begin an entry with “Anonymous” unless the works uses that term for its author.

(k) Government document

U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Energy and Commerce. (1986). Ensuring access    to programming for the backyard satellite dish owner (Serial No. 99-127). Washington , DC :    U.S. Government Printing Office.

For government documents, provide the higher department or governing agency only when the office or agency that created the document is not readily recognizable. If a document number is available, list it after the document title in parentheses. Write out the name of the printing agency in full, as the publisher, rather than using the abbreviation “GPO”.

Documenting Periodicals In citing periodical articles, use the same format for listing author names as for books.

(a) Article in a journal paginated by volume

Hartley, J. (1991). Psychology, writing, and computers: A review of research. Visible Language ,    25, 339- 375.

If page numbers are continuous throughout volumes in a year, use only the volume number, italicized, following the title of the periodical.

(b) Article in a journal paginated by issue

Lowther, M. A. (1977). Career change in mid-life: Its impact on education. Innovator , 8(7), 1,
   9-11.

Include the issue number in parentheses if each issue of a journal is paginated separately.

(c) Magazine article

Garreau, J. (1995, December). Edgier cities. Wired , 3, 232-234.

For nonprofessional periodicals, include the year and month (not abbreviated) after the author's name and the volume number.

(d) Newspaper article

Finn, P. (1995, September 27). Death of a U-Va. Student raises scrutiny of off-campus drinking.    The Washington Post , pp. D1, D4.

If an author is listed for the article, begin with the author's name, then list the date (spell out the month); follow with the title of the newspaper. If there is a section, combine it with the page or pages, including continued page numbers as well.

Documenting Electronic Sources
The two philosophies that have always governed APA citations are 1) to credit the author's work, and 2) to provide enough information for the reader to retrieve the material.

The newest APA style recommendations divide electronic sources between two large categories: (1) sources on the Internet, divided into two types – periodicals (sources published regularly, such as journals, newsletter, magazines etc) and nonperiodicals (books, stand-alone documents, reports, brochures, audiovisual media, etc.); and (3) other electronic sources (CD-ROMs, databases, electronic mail, etc.).

(a) Online journal article unaltered from its print version

Green, C. D. (1992) of immortal mythological beasts: Operationism in psychology [Electronic    version]. Theory and Psychology , 2, 291-320.

Many online articles are provided unchanged from the print version (e.g. original page numbers are indicated, no data or links have been added, etc.), then cite the same as you would the print text. However, add [Electronic version] after the title to complete the citation.

When the source has been altered from its print version in any way (making the online version to that extent unique), then add a retrieval statement and the URL to complete the citation. If your source is an Internet-only periodical or if you retrieved the article via file transfer protocol (ftp), you would follow the same format, as in model 18 below.

(b) Abstracted from aggregated database
Current APA guidelines indicate that when citing a source from an aggregated database as a reference, follow the format appropriate to the work retrieved, but add a statement that gives the data of retrieval and the name of the database. For example: Electronic copy of a journal article retrieved from database

Carpenter, Joni. (1993). Speaking, writing and knowing as a woman: Making space for    difference in the composition classroom. Community Review , 13, 8-13, Abstract retrieved May    4, 2002 , from Ebsco Host database.

(c) Online article with altered format or content

Kapadia, S. (1995, November). A tribute to Mahatma Gandhi: His views on women and social    exchange [19 paragraphs]. Journal of South Asia Women's Studies , 1 (s). Retrieved October    21, 1998 , from http://www.shore.net/~india/jsaws/

For online journal articles, indicate the number of paragraphs in brackets after the title of the article. The issue number follows the volume number, in parentheses. Give the access date in the “Retrieved …” statement, as well as the URL, with no end punctuation.

Usually, you do not need to include a descriptor for an article from an online journal. In the following example, notice the description in square brackets following the title, volume number, and page number. It is added when it helps a reader retrieve the source. (Most descriptors of documents follow the title; for example, to identify a brochure or motion picture.)

Lewis, R. (1995, December 24). Chronobiology researchers say their field's time has come. The    Scientist , 9, p. 14 [Online newspaper]. Retrieved December 30, 1997 , from http://www.the
   -cientist.library.upenn.edu/yr1995/dec/chrono_951211.html

Shaw, M. L. G., & Gaines, B. R. (1992, October). Kelly's “geometry psychological space” and its    significance for cognitive modeling. The New Psychologist , 23-31. Retrieved March 8, 2002 ,    from http://ksi.cpsc.ucalgary.ca/articles/NewsPsych92/

(d) Online document published by private organization or group

American Psychiatric Association. (2001). Coping with a national tragedy-Resources, Tools, and    Other Links. September 20, 2001 . Retrieved January 6, 2002 , from    http://psych.org/public_info/copydisaster92001.cfm

If the document has no revision or publication date, insert the abbreviation (n.d.) after the title and before the retrieval statement.

(e) Document available on a university or project website

Pierce, C. S. (1869, November 25), The English doctrine of ideas. Nation 9 , 461-462. Retrieved   January 16, 2002 , from IUPUI ( Indiana University and Purdue University , Indianpolis) Peirce   Edition Project website: http://www.iupui.edu/Epeirce/web/writings/v2/w2/w2_30/v2_30.htm

This example was retrieved from a website for the Peirce Edition Project (dedicated to the works of philosopher Charles Sander Peirce), a large university project. The URL allows the reader to reach the cited article directly, without navigating the complex site. An online book, report, or data survey can be cited using this model or model 24.

(f) Abstract retrieved online from a university site

Bart-Tal, Y., Kishnon-Rabin, L., & Tabak, N. (in press). The effect of need and ability to achieve    cognitive structuring on cognitive structuring). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.    Abstract retrieved March 7, 2002 , from Purdue University , Social Cognition Paper Archive    and Information Center database: http://www.psych.purdue.edu/~esmith/bt.html

(g) Electronic mail message
Electronic mail is considered a personal communication, not available to your readers. Cite it within your text, as you would any other personal information source (interview, letter, etc.).

Wilson reported that his data did not match Baer's conclusions (K. T. Wilson, personal    communication, December 12, 2001).

(h) Newsgroup, electronic mailing list, or discussion group posting

Trehub, A. (2002, January 28). The conscious access hypothesis [Msg. 18]. Message posted to    University of Houston Psyche Discussion Forum :
   http://listserv.uh.edu/cg-bin/wa?A2=ind0201&L=psyche- b&F=&S=&P=2334

(i) Aggregated databases
A searchable, “aggregated database” us a selected group of resources stored in an electronic form for simplified, focused electronic access. You are not required to document how you accessed the database – via portable CD-ROM, on a library server, via a supplier World Wide Web site – but a retrieval statement that correctly names the source (in this case, the database) and gives the data of retrieval is always necessary. (If you include an item or accession number, place it in parentheses after the title of your document). Give the URL only when the information will help your reader locate the specific material. Do not italicize the names of databases.

Freud, S. (1913). Interpretation of dreams (A. A. Brill, Trans.). New York : Macmillan. Retrieved    March 1, 2002 , from Classics in the History of Psychology databases.

This online book can be obtained on the Internet. A title or author keyword search will obtain the document in the database. If the database were obtained on CD-ROM or a library server, the citation would be the same.

(j) Electronic copy of an article, abstract or data file

Harad, S. (1992). Other bodies, other minds: A machine incarnation of an old philosophical    problems. Minds and Machines 1 , 43-54. Retrieved February 25, 2002 , from Cognitive    Science at Southhampton E-Print Archive database:    http://cogsci.soton.ac.uk/~harbad/genpub.html

(k) Computer software, program or language
Commonly used commercial computer software and programming languages (Microsoft Word 5.1, e.g.) do not require a References page entry. Identify the correct name of the software, program, or language along with the version number in your text. If the software is not widely distributed or unfamiliar, cite according to this model.  

HyperCard (Version 2.2.) [Computer software]. (1993). Cupertino , CA : Apple Computer.

Documenting Other Sources

(a) Motion picture/audio recording, and other nonprint media

Curtiz, M. (Director). (1942). Casablanca [Motion picture]. United States : Warner Bros.

References

Bailey, S. (2004). Academic writing : A practical guide for students . London : RoutledgeFalmer.

Kennedy, M. L., & Smith, H. M. (2001). Reading and writing in the academic community (2 nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Rasmussen, K. G. (2004). Prentice Hall writer's guide to research and documentation (6 th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ : Pearson/Prentice Hall.

Rosa, A., & Eschholz, P. (1996). Writer's brief handbook (2 nd ed.). Boston : Allyn & Bacon.

Szuchman, L. T. (2002). Writing with style: APA style made easy (2 nd ed.). CA: Wadsworth Publishing.

Veit, R. (2004). Research: The student's guide to writing research papers (4 th ed.). New York : Pearson.

Walliman, N., & Baiche, B. (2001). Your research project : A step-by-step guide for the first-time researcher. London : SAGE.